|
Cellular Respiration is a complicated process that involves many step to convert nutrients, such as glucose, into ATP. Remember that ATP is the energy storage molecule that the cell can use. In order to give you a good understanding of cellular respiration I have compiled a few textbook chapters and articles that you should look through on your own time.
You will not need to know the in-depth analysis of what happens where there isn't enough oxygen so don't worry that we haven't covered anaerobic respiration or fermentation. You will have to know that some portions of the process are limited by oxygen. |
|
The notes that we took in class are available here. You will need to know the different steps and what is created at each step of the process. You will be responsible for knowing the names of the molecules if we put the names on this diagram. Any other molecule names will not be required. You should be able to walk me through the steps of cellular respiration without these notes.
|
Summary of the process:
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration includes all metabolic pathways where carbohydrates and other metabolites are broken down to build up ATP.
Aerobic cellular respiration includes pathways that require oxygen.
Breaking glucose (a high-energy molecule) into CO2 and H2O (low-energy molecules) is an exergonic process.
Upon breakdown, electrons are removed from glucose and eventually received by O2.
Glucose is oxidized and O2 is reduced; glucose breakdown is therefore an oxidation-reduction reaction.
The buildup of ATP is an endergonic reaction, it requires energy.
The breakdown of one glucose results in 36 to 38 ATP molecules being formed
The Steps of Aerobic Respiration
- a. Aerobic cellular respiration is a gradual process that prevents energy loss as heat.
- b. Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate; occurs outside the mitochondria.
- c. During the transition reaction, pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA and CO2 is removed; the transition reaction occurs twice per glucose molecule.
- d. The Krebs cycle is cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle; it turns twice per glucose and produces two ATP.
- e. The electron transport system is a series of carriers that accept electrons removed from glucose and eventually pass then to oxygen; release of energy along this electron transport chain results in ATP buildup.
- a. NAD+ picks up two electrons and one hydrogen ion
- b. The electrons received by NAD+ are used by the cell to produce ATP.
- c. Like an enzyme, the coenzyme NAD+ is used over and over again; only a small amount is therefore present in a cell.
- d. After NAD+ accepts electrons and is reduced to NADH, NADH passes the electrons to another carrier and becomes oxidized to NAD+ again.
- e. FAD is sometimes used instead of NAD+ to oxidize substrates; FAD accepts two electrons and two hydrogen ions and becomes FADH2.
Glycolysis breaks down glucose to two molecules of pyruvate outside the mitochondria. (Found in all organisms, glycolysis probably evolved before the Krebs cycle and electron transport system and probably is why it occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen.)
The Energy Investment Steps:
- a. Two ATP are used to activate glucose (a six-carbon molecule).
- b. The resulting molecule is phosphorylated (phosphate groups are added).
- c. The C6 molecule splits into two C3 molecules, each of which is phosphorylated.
- The Energy Generation Steps:
- a. Oxidation of substrates is carried out by NAD+ twice producing two NADH.
- b. Energy released allows formation of four ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation.
- c. During substrate-level phosphorylation, a substrate passes a high-energy phosphate to ADP forming ATP.
- d. Subtracting two ATP used to get the reaction started, there is a net gain of two ATP.
- Glycolysis is not just an aerobic process but also occurs in anaerobic fermentation.
The transition reaction, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport system all take place inside the mitochondria.
Enzymes for the Krebs cycle are located in the fluid-filled matrix of the mitochondria.
Pathways: oxygen and glucose diffuse into cells from bloodstream, pyruvate (as an end product of glycolysis) diffuses into mitochondria; CO2 and ATP diffuse back out of mitochondria into cytoplasm and CO2 further diffuses back to bloodstream. Water can remain in mitochondria, in cytoplasm, or enter bloodstream for excretion. ATP remains as a source of energy for the cell to do work.
Since most of ATP is produced in mitochondria, mitochondria are often called the powerhouses of the cell.
The transition reaction:
- a. Connects glycolysis to Krebs cycle.
- b. Occurs within matrix of mitochondria.
- c. From glucose, two molecules of pyruvate are converted to a two-carbon acetyl group attached to coenzyme A (CoA).
- d. CO2 is given off.
- a. Occurs in matrix of mitochondria.
- b. Takes up acetyl group (acetyl CoA) from transition reaction and oxidizes it to two CO2 molecules.
- c. During the process, most of the electrons are accepted by NAD+ but in one instance they are taken by FAD.
- a. Is located on cristae (projections of inner membrane).
- b. Consists of a series of carriers that pass electrons; some of protein carriers are cytochrome molecules so system is also called the cytochrome system.
- c. Accounts for most of the ATP produced.
- d. When NADH gives up electrons, it becomes NAD+ while an electron carrier gains electrons and is reduced.
- e. Each sequential carrier becomes reduced and then oxidized as electrons move down the system.
- f. As electrons pass from carrier to carrier, energy is released and used to form ATP molecules.
- g. When NADH delivers electrons to the first carrier, enough energy is released by time electrons reach the O2 to produce three ATPs.
- h. When FADH2 delivers electrons to electron transport system, only two ATPs result.
- a. Contain carriers of electron transport system arranged in a functional manner.
- b. The carriers use released energy to pump the surplus hydrogen ions carried by NADH and FADH2 into intermembrane space of mitochondria.
- c. Cristae also contain ATP synthase complex:
- i. Hydrogen ions flow from high to low concentration from intermembrane space across to matrix.
- ii. Resulting H+ flow drive enzyme ATP synthase to synthesize ATP from ADP + (P) .
- iii. Process is called chemiosmosis because ATP production is tied to an electrochemical gradient.
- a. Per glucose, four ATP are formed by substrate-level phosphorylation, two during glycolysis and two during two turns of Krebs cycle.
- b. Per glucose, ten NADH and two FADH2 take electrons to the electron transport system.
- c. For each NADH formed inside the mitochondria by Krebs cycle, three ATP result; for each FADH2, only two ATP are produced.
- d. The glycolytic pathway outside the mitochondria produces only two ATP when the electrons are shuttled to the electron transport system inside the mitochondrion.
- a. Difference in energy content between glucose and O2, and products CO2 and H2O is 686 kilocalories.
- b. The ATP third phosphate bond has energy content of 7.3 kilocalories, 36 ATP are produced per glucose breakdown totaling 263 kilocalories.
- c. Efficiency is 263/686 or 39%.
- d. Sixty-one percent is lost as heat; in birds and mammals, this heat assists in maintaining body temperature.
Fats are broken down:
- i. Fatty acids are converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle.
- ii. Fats are an efficient form of stored energy, an 18-carbon fatty acid results in nine acetyl-CoA molecules that produce 216 ATP molecules via respiration.
- i. Amino acids must undergo deamination (removal of amino group; this occurs in the liver).
- ii. The amino group becomes ammonia (NH3) which becomes urea via the urea cycle.
- iii. The carbon skeleton produced by deamination can then enter Krebs cycle depending on the number of carbons left after deamination.
|
|
|
The link between Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
